Queen Elizabeth I’s support for Walter Raleigh’s colonization efforts was driven by a combination of geopolitical ambitions, economic interests, religious considerations, and the desire to challenge Spanish dominance in the New World.
In 1584, Queen Elizabeth I issued Walter Raleigh a sweeping charter to settle any territory that other European nations hadn’t yet claimed. Raleigh himself couldn’t venture across the pond—the queen wanted him to stay at court—but he organized an expedition to scout out a good spot for a settlement in North America. So, explorers Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe surveyed what’s now coastal North Carolina and the Outer Banks, a region that the resident Algonquin-speaking tribes knew as Ossomocomuck[1].
Queen Elizabeth was pleased with the results. She allowed the entire territory to be named Virginia, a reference to her status as the virgin queen. She also bestowed a knighthood on Raleigh and gave him additional resources and rights to set up a permanent colony on Roanoke Island, a 10-mile-long and 2.5-mile-wide land mass sandwiched between mainland North Carolina and the Outer Banks. The story begins in 1587, when a group of 115 English settlers arrived to settle Roanoke Island, off the coast of what is now North Carolina.
It was one of the first English settlements in the New World, founded 20 years before Jamestown. Roanoke was where the first European child was born on American soil, Virginia Dare, and things were hopeful but not at all perfect. The Roanoke colony was led by one John White, who returned to England with a group for more supplies after establishing the settlement.
Due to the small matter of a naval war between England and Spain, White was not able to return to Roanoke until 1590 and when he did, he found the settlement completely deserted with only one message: the word “Croatoan” carved into a tree.
What did Croatoan Mean?
The Croatoan were a Native American tribe who inhabited the coastal region of what is now North Carolina, specifically the area around Croatoan Island, now known as Hatteras Island. They were part of the Algonquian linguistic group[2] and had a distinct cultural identity within the larger Algonquian cultural framework. The Croatoan had interactions with European explorers and colonizers, including the English settlers of the Roanoke Colony. Further archaeological research and study of historical documents have shed light on the cultural practices and history of the Croatoan people.
White also found two written clues: the letters CRO carved into a tree trunk, and the word CROATOAN etched into a wooden post at the entrance of their fort. To many people today, these are the most mysterious details from the story of Roanoke’s lost colony. To White, they didn’t seem all that mysterious. Prior to his departure in 1587, he and the colonists had devised a plan: They were supposed to head 50 miles onto the mainland—presumably to establish a more permanent city, as was originally planned—making sure beforehand “to write or carve on the trees or posts of the doors the name of the place where they should be seated.” White had also instructed them to carve a cross over the name of the place “if they should happen to be distressed.” In the absence of any cross, White wrote that he was “greatly joyed” at having located “a certain token of their safe being at Croatoan.”
Though John White’s party of English colonists was basically stranded on Roanoke Island, they weren’t completely friendless. They had a solid ally in Manteo, who had journeyed back to England with the previous party and returned to Roanoke with White’s expedition. He was the son of a woman generally believed to have been chief of the Croatoans, who lived on Croatoan Island (now Hatteras Island).
Digging up answers
The colonists’ fate has become one of American history’s most enduring mysteries, and now archaeologists have uncovered new evidence suggesting that the survivors splintered into multiple camps and assimilated into the Indigenous population.
There are many theories about what became of Roanoke, none of which are particularly pleasant. Historians have posited that the colonists were killed by Native Americans or hostile Spaniards, or that they died off due to disease or famine, or were victims of a deadly storm.
But researchers uncovered a new lead in 2012 while examining a map at the British Museum in London that White had painted of the Elizabethan-era United States, titled La Virginea Pars.
Hidden in invisible ink, presumably to guard information about the colonies from the Spanish, were the outlines of two forts, one 50 miles west of Roanoke—the same distance away that the colonists had told White they planned to move, according to his writings.
The First Colony Foundation’s team of archaeologists, led by Nick Luccketti, set out to investigate the site in Bertie County, North Carolina, in 2015. Promisingly, the possible settlement was close to a Native American village called Mettaquem, typical of early European settlements.
There was no sign of a fort, but just outside the village wall, the archaeologists found two dozen shards of English pottery at what’s been dubbed Site X. Ground-penetrating radar revealed another possible dig site two miles away.
The search continued in December 2019 at what’s been dubbed Site Y, yielding many more fragments of ceramics from different parts of Europe. The fragments, which come from vessels used for food preparation and storage, suggest the presence of long-term residents.
What has been found so far at Site Y in Bertie County appears to me to solve one of the greatest mysteries in Early American history, the odyssey of the ‘Lost’ colony,
William M. Kelso, emeritus director of archaeology and research at Jamestown Rediscovery
Although the experts haven’t ruled out the possibility that the artifacts may have been left behind by colonists from Jamestown, founded in 1607, Luccketti is confident that his find is evidence of a group of relocated Roanoke colonists. Notable is a lack of English pipes, which were ubiquitous among Jamestown settlers, suggesting the ceramics date from an earlier period. “We are very confident that these excavations are linked to the Roanoke colonies.
We have considered all other reasonable possibilities and can find nothing else that fits the evidence,” a First Colony Foundation representative told Artnet News in an email. “[The excavations] begin to reveal where the colonist went to live and how they tried to survive in the New World.”
I am skeptical. They are looking to prove rather than seeking to disprove their theory, which is the scientific way.
Charles Ewen, an archaeologist at East Carolina University
Another theory about the colony is that the settlers moved to Croatoan—hence the apparently not-so-cryptic note. “Bertie was the heart of enemy territory,” Scott Dawson, cofounder of the Croatoan Archaeological Society, told the Virginian-Pilot. “It is the last place they would go. The colony literally wrote down they relocated to Croatoan.”
When these colonies become abandoned, you get massive political eruptions and disagreements and people walking out and things,” said Professor Mark Horton of Bristol who led the dig. “So it’s not unlikely that one group might have gone up the Chesapeake, up the Albemarle. But I’m pretty confident one group at least, probably the pretty substantial part, came out to Hatteras Island.” Earlier this year, Dawson published a book, The Lost Colony and Hatteras Island, detailing the findings of the society’s 10 years of excavations at Hatteras Island led by Mark Horton, an archaeologist at the University of Bristol, in England.
Footnotes
- The Ossomocomuck is a mythical creature deeply rooted in Native American folklore, particularly among the Algonquin tribes of the northeastern United States. Described as a shape-shifting trickster spirit, the Ossomocomuck is known for its mischievous nature and ability to transform into various animals and objects. Legends surrounding the Ossomocomuck often highlight its penchant for playing pranks on unsuspecting individuals, teaching moral lessons through its actions. Its presence in Native American storytelling serves as a reminder of the importance of humility, wisdom, and respect for the natural world. The Ossomocomuck is a fascinating figure within indigenous mythology, exemplifying the rich cultural heritage and spiritual beliefs of Native American communities. [Back]
- The Algonquian linguistic group is a diverse collection of Native American tribes primarily inhabiting the northeastern and central parts of North America, extending from the Atlantic coast to the Great Lakes region and the Rocky Mountains. The Algonquian language family encompasses numerous languages, dialects, and subgroups, including the Ojibwe, Cree, Blackfoot, Micmac, and Delaware among others. These languages share certain grammatical and phonological characteristics, indicating their common origin. Historically, Algonquian-speaking tribes were known for their hunter-gatherer and agricultural lifestyles, with each tribe developing unique cultural practices, social structures, and spiritual beliefs. The Algonquian linguistic group played a significant role in shaping the early history of North America, interacting with European colonizers, engaging in trade, and influencing the formation of the fur trade economy. Today, while many Algonquian languages are endangered, efforts are being made to revitalize and preserve these important indigenous languages and the cultural heritage they represent. [Back]
Further Reading
Sources
- “13 Tantalizing Facts About the Lost Colony of Roanoke” (Jan 31, 2023) https://www.mentalfloss.com/posts/roanoke-lost-colony-facts
- “The “Croatoan” Mystery of the Lost Roanoke Colony May Finally Be Solved” (Aug 18th, 2020) https://www.themarysue.com/the-croatoan-mystery-of-the-lost-roanoke-colony-may-finally-be-solved/
- “The Lost Colony of Roanoke – The Tale of Virginia Dare” (2023) https://www.outerbanks.org/things-to-do/museums-and-historic-sites/the-lost-colony-outdoor-drama/
- “The Roanoke Colony: Lost, and Found?” National Geographic. [Online]. Available: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2018/07-08/lost-roanoke-colony-found-discovery/
- “Roanoke Colony.” Encyclopedia Britannica. [Online]. Available: https://www.britannica.com/event/Roanoke-Colony
- Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. Roanoke: The Abandoned Colony. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.
- Powell, W. S. (2001). The Native Americans of the North Carolina Coast: Their Archaeology and Prehistory. University of North Carolina Press.
- “Archaeologists May Have Finally Solved the Mystery of the Disappearance of Roanoke’s Lost Colony” (November 6, 2020) https://news.artnet.com/art-world/archaeologists-mystery-lost-roanoke-lost-colony-1921594
- “Mystery of lost colony of Roanoke solved? Amateur archaeologist makes the case” (August 29, 2020) https://nypost.com/2020/08/29/amateur-archaeologist-answers-lost-roanoke-colony-mystery/
- “ONE RING TO RULE THEM ALL: ROANOKE AND THAT SIGNET RING” (SEPTEMBER 18, 2017) https://michaelleroyoberg.com/history-and-historians/roanoke-and-the-lost-colonists/
- Erdoes, R., & Ortiz, A. (Eds.). (1984). American Indian Myths and Legends. Pantheon Books.
- Mails, T. E. (1978). The Mystic Warriors of the Plains. Doubleday.
- Utter, J. T. (2001). American Indians: Answers to Today’s Questions. University of Oklahoma Press.
